Attitudes of Student Teachers towards the use of English as Language of Instruction for Science and Mathematics in the Philippines Filed under ( Education News ) by edy-koerniawan

title

Attitudes of Student Teachers towards the use of English as Language of Instruction for Science and Mathematics in the Philippines

Author
Camilla J. Vizconde
Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD),
University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines

Bio Data:
Camilla J. Vizconde is a faculty researcher in the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD) and an English teacher in the College of Education of the University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines. Any correspondence with the author may be made through the Center for Educational Research and Development, Room 201, Thomas Aquinas Research Center, University of Santo Tomas, España, Manila, Philippines 1015 with telefax number (0632) 3140852 or through e-mail address: camille.vizconde@lycos.com. or cjvizconde@mnl.ust.edu.ph.

Article: PDF version

Abstract

This qualitative study aims to describe the attitudes of science and mathematics student teachers towards English, which is one medium of instruction together with Filipino, in the Philippines where a bilingual policy is being implemented. Through interviews conducted with sixteen student teachers from two leading teacher training institutions in the Philippines, the findings yield that student teachers have difficulty in adhering to the bilingual policy of education. Through the analysis of the interview transcriptions, the findings show that the majority of the student teachers prefer the alternate use of both Filipino and English inside their classrooms, which defy the actual designation of media of instruction. As science and mathematics teachers, English should be the only medium in their classrooms. Most argue that concepts and topics taught are not comprehensible to students when taught in English. Student teachers, though agreeing that English is necessary in teaching their subjects, suggest that Filipino be used as a support language in the science and mathematics classes. These results have great implications in the present implementation of the bilingual policy as science and mathematics teachers have determined through their shared experiences that the use of English only in their classrooms has not been effective and productive in the long term. 

Key Words:bilingual education, attitudes, student teachers, medium of instruction

Human beings by changing the inner attitudes of their minds, can change the outer aspects of their lives.
William James (1842-1910)

 

Introduction

The need to be proficient in the use of English among non-native speakers has become a global phenomenon. Today, educators are faced with the challenge of addressing the needs of the growing number of students whose primary language is not English (Gibbons, 2003). While mastering other skills and content in other subject areas, there is the necessity for these learners to gain proficiency in English.

   It is surprising to note that even in the United States of America where immigrants continue to increase in number, studies show that this is a predicament (Berriz, 2006; Spanos, 2006; Reyhner & Davison, 1992). Public schools in the U.S. have been developing instruction for their students learning English as a second language for the past 25 years and the challenge has remained. One such strategy for instruction identified by Blake and Van Sickle (2001) is code-switching from the local dialect to standard teaching, which seemed to work well as the students improved their academic achievement in science and mathematics. This may not be true, however, for other states which do not adhere to code-switching and find immersion or sheltered-approach as workable (Rossell, 2005). The quest for the “right” approach seems elusive as they continue to experiment with other formulas to meet the growing and changing needs of learners.
  
   In South Africa, Miller, Bradbury and Pedley (1998) studied the academic performance of students in mathematics and English. Their findings show that the second language, which is English, rather than being the direct cause of under-preparedness of university students, serves to compound or exacerbate a more fundamental educational or cognitive problem. Mathematical concepts are acquired through language and the problem arising from the use of the language has truly affected the learning of these concepts.

   Although there are rich sources of data for English as a Second Language across the curriculum, there is still a dearth in literature concerning the use of English in science and mathematics teaching. The need to answer the challenge of both attaining mastery of the content and the English language is an issue that science and mathematics teachers should address. Furthermore, do they really believe that being proficient in English would help them teach science and mathematics effectively?

   The attitudes of teachers come to the fore as they reflect upon the language that they use in teaching. Consciously or unconsciously, their attitudes play a crucial role in language’s “growth or decay, restoration or destruction” (Baker, 1988). Their attitudes, too, as part of their cultural orientation, influence heavily their younger students (Shameem, 2004). What kind of attitudes towards English should teachers have in order for them to teach science and mathematics concepts successfully? Can these attitudes be reflected even during their student training period? What attitudes do student teachers have towards English as their medium of instruction?

   The student teachers in science and mathematics have to be equally prepared to perform their tasks not only by mastering their own subject area but also by achieving competence in the use of the medium of instruction. Learning science and language arts is reciprocal (Casteel & Isom, 1994). Language is an indispensable tool in the promotion of learning. Designated as a second language in the Philippines, English takes the central role of bridging knowledge and skills in mathematics and science to learner competency in these areas. The teacher’s preparation should not just be in terms of knowledge and skills in their specialization but also in their attitude towards the tools that they will use in teaching their subjects. Attitude towards the use of English as a medium of instruction plays a significant role in determining the success of the science and mathematics program of the schools, hence this investigation.

Review of related literature

Studies regarding attitudes towards a certain language are quite numerous. Gardner’s contribution in the understanding of attitudes and its relation to language teaching and learning, however, cannot be ignored. Gardner’s studies in language attitudes and motivation have been cited by professionals and experts in language acquisition (Ellis, 1985; Spolsky, 1989; Romaine, 1995; Cook, 1996; Hashimoto, 2002; and Kamhi-Stein, 2003). Gardner (2001) proposes that the teacher must have the training, personality characteristics, and ability to teach the fundamentals of the language to the students. Not only that, teachers must encourage students to learn the materials and most importantly, use them. 

   Initially, a questionnaire to investigate attitudes had been employed. However, it failed to reveal unconsciously held or socially undesirable attitudes (Hamers & Blanc, 1989). As other researchers became interested in the concept of measuring attitudes, more refined types of measurement emerged. Romaine (1995) cites the advantages of using a questionnaire as facility in the distribution and collection access to a larger number of respondents and ease in comparison and analysis of information/data gathered. Baker (1988) mentions further, several types of techniques in measuring an individual’s attitude, namely: Thurston and Chave, Likert, Guttman’s Scalogram Analysis, the Semantic Differential Technique, the Repertory Grid Technique, Factor Analysis and Sociometry.

   One of the most popular techniques was Lambert’s matched guise test (Cook, 1996). This technique presents tape recordings to bilingual speakers who are asked to evaluate the speaker based on the scale, which describes certain personality traits (e.g. good/bad, pleasant/unpleasant, etc.) The judge does not know that he is being presented the same speaker who spoke both languages on tape. Since the speaker does not change, it is assumed that the judgment made will solely be based on the personality traits. When used for French/English bilinguals, results of Lambert’s findings showed that both French and English judges perceived English as more favorable than French.

   Warden and Lin’s (1998) study of Taiwanese students’ attitudes made use of the Likert type scale combined with open-ended questions. The study revealed that the past learning processes affected the perspectives in English learning and the fears of the students. Since the study was conducted among non-EFL majors, the findings show that different language skills, teaching methods, interests and outlook affect the attitudes of the students towards the English language. The study suggested the adoption of a variety of methods that would meet the needs of the teachers and students.

   Using direct and indirect measures of attitude (subjective vitality questionnaire and a matched-guise instrument), El-Dash and Busnardo (2001) conducted a study on Brazilian attitudes toward English. Results reveal that the majority of adolescents favor English to the Portuguese language in terms of status and solidarity. Favoring the English language over the native Portuguese is attributed to the general perception of English as a prestigious international language and as symbolic use among adolescent peer group.

   In the field of reading, a study by Kamhi-Stein (2003b) suggests that the reader’s views of their home language and beliefs about reading may play an important role in reading. In her study of college readers in Spanish and English, findings show that attitudes seem to affect the reading behavior of the participants. In a third study conducted by Borromeo-Samonte (1981) on the attitudes of Filipino college students towards English, results show that the students favor English. The students’ attitudes were influenced by their integrative motivation as they can easily identify themselves with the culture. Student performance and attitudes were influenced by motivation. The study also showed that the attitudes were conditioned by the choice of profession/vocation, age, teacher influence and peer group influence.

   Similar studies in the Philippines made by Amamio (2000) on attitudes of students, teachers and parents toward English and Filipino as media of instruction provided an interesting comparison. Students and teachers prefer the use of English as the medium of instruction with the teachers finding English as a more comfortable language for explaining ideas and concepts. Teachers further noted that English is an intellectualized language and a valuable tool to source information technology. However, the parents preferred Filipino because “it is a language in which they can think and express themselves” and it is a language that they understand and through which they themselves are better understood.

   In sum, research regarding language attitudes has yielded information that is valuable in determining the language to be used as the medium of instruction. It would benefit the teachers and the policy makers to identify the attitudes of teachers towards the language they use in their fields of specialization.  

The present study

This research endeavors to address the following questions: 1) What attitudes do student teachers have towards the use of English as medium of instruction in teaching science and mathematics? 2) What implications may be deduced from the respondents’ collective attitudes towards English as the medium of instruction for science and mathematics in the light of the Bilingual Policy of the Philippines?

Method

Respondents

A total of nineteen (19) pre-service teachers from the government and private schools were purposively selected for the study. As observed by Patton (2001), limiting the number of respondents in qualitative studies is not aimed at generalizing but clarifying the idea. The schools were chosen on the basis of graduates’ performance in licensure examinations for teachers. These teacher-training institutions have consistently produced graduates who pass the licensure examinations thereby placing the schools in the top performing institutions. The teacher training supervisor provided respondents from the state university while their supervising teachers favorably endorsed those from the private university. Student teachers were only allowed to undergo the interview during their free time. Respondents came from the state university (32%) and the private university (68%). A majority of the respondents were female (84%). Of the respondents 74% graduated from secondary education in private schools, while 26% finished secondary education in government or public high schools. Fifty-eight percent (58%) took science as their field’s specialization in the tertiary level while the rest specialized in mathematics (42%).

   Based on the robotfoto (a Dutch term which means a cartographic sketch of the respondents, Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2002) given to the respondents before the actual interview, the majority of respondents used Filipino (74%) as the language spoken at home while English and Filipino (53%) were widely used in school. In terms of language preferences, the majority of respondents seemed to be inclined towards movies (79%), magazines (89%), books (79%) and newspapers (79%) in English.

Procedure

Qualitative in nature, the study made use of robotfotos and actual interviews as main tools for gathering information. First, the respondents were asked to answer the robotfoto and were invited for an interview. The interviews lasted for a minimum of twenty to forty-five minutes per respondent. The interview guide questions are presented in Appendix 1. These questions were formulated based on an intensive related literature review.

   The interviews were semi-structured in nature to allow the researcher to clarify and probe deeper into the answers of the respondents. Respondents could choose Filipino or English as their medium of expression and they were asked to state without inhibition their opinions and comments regarding the questions. Before the actual interviews, respondents were informed that the exchanges were to be tape-recorded. All interviews were done voluntarily and the respondents were assured of the confidentiality of their answers. 

Data Analysis

Data from the recorded interviews were gathered and transcribed carefully. Answers were categorized into two main classifications: positive and negative attitudes towards the language and the persons using the language. Results were reviewed and analyzed thoroughly by reading the transcriptions. The data were then summarized and interpreted.

 Findings
Concept of English

Respondents generally thought of English as a universal language that is used in communicating their thoughts and ideas. They also related it to some concepts like grammar, vocabulary and speech. A few considered it difficult as they perceived it to be a challenge and “very hard”. As indicated in Table 1, respondents from the public and private schools did not differ much in their responses as both referred to components of the language

Table 1: Perception of the word: English

Respondents from Private Schools	Respondents from Public Schools
“language expressing thoughts…” “Vocabulary words…” “Language” “Language for communication” “Hard because I’m not good in grammar” “Universal language” “Challenging” “Grammar” “Very hard”	“Universal language…” “English is a second language.” “…anything that’s English” “speech..” “…medium of instruction” “…classic literature, essays, short stories…”

Attitudes towards English as a Language
The majority of respondents gave English an important status in the country. Some of them valued English highly because it is used for “business, transaction and communication with foreigners”. One respondent seemed to relate the ability to speak the language with the socio-economic status of the speaker. It suggests that if one knows how to speak English, one comes from the upper class in the society. Another respondent suggested that knowing how to speak the language relates to intelligence. Fifteen percent (15%) of the respondents believed that it is the language of the educated. 

   Three respondents believed that English has the same status as that of Filipino though each clarified later on what was meant by equality. One stated that though both languages have the same status, English seems to be the language of the upper class. Another revealed that one should “know first your language before you study another language such as English”. One seemed to be practical in saying that both languages enjoy equal status since there are mathematical and scientific terms that cannot be translated in Filipino, thus, Filipino is seen as a substitute for English. On the other hand, when students have difficulty understanding English explanations and discussions, Filipino comes in handy for translation. The majority of respondents agreed on the necessity and utility of the English language.

Attitudes towards users of English
Most of the respondents had positive attitudes towards fellow Filipinos who use the English language in a place beyond the home as indicated in Table 2. Respondents agreed that fluency in the English language signifies success in profession and society. Fifteen percent (15%) or three respondents said that they admire these people. The respondents seemed to admire these users because they see the advantage of the use of the language at home and in school and some compare their communication skills and found themselves inadequate. 

   A great number also attributed the ability of the speakers to use English well to their upbringing at home. The perception was that these people are trained to speak English well at home and in school and so develop fluency in speaking the language. In addition to this, Filipinos who speak English well were taught the language since they were children. The respondents also seemed to relate this ability to speak English well to success in life and having better chances of working in other countries.

   Initially, some respondents reacted negatively, but after careful probing, they clarified that their answers associated this negativity with their insecurity in speaking the English language. Other respondents thought that non-native speakers who use English at home and in places beyond the school want only to impress other people with their competence in the language. They perceived these users to be “maarte” (exaggerated) and “OA (overacting)”. 

   There was only one respondent who did not have any thoughts at all regarding these English users since his response is “Wala, wala. (None at all)”.

Table 2: Attitude towards the user of English at home and in school

Positive Attitudes

Negative Attitudes

“Magaling po sila” (They are good.) “…excel more in outside the country, they have better chance” “Okay, that way they can develop more yung speaking in English.” “They have better edge.” “Magaling sila….kasi pinalaki silang ganoon.” (They are good because they were brought up that way.) “I admire them because it’s hard for me to speak in English.” “Para bagang well-trained. Lalo po yung pinanggalingan nilang school o yung family.” (They seem to be well trained. Especially from those school or family.) “There’s nothing wrong about it as long as you can manage and you can communicate well with other people.” “Nature noong kinalakihan nila.” “Advantage. Magagamit po sa bahay at sa school” (It can be useful at home and in school.) “I admire them and I consider them educated.”

“I think they’re trying to impress their, yung mga kausap nila.” “Okay lang pero parang ‘funny’ at home kasi you’re suppose to speak the Filipino language.” (It’s okay but it seems funny to be speaking the language since you’re supposed to speak Filipino at home.) “I feel insecure kasi parang gusto nilang maging successful.” (I feel insecure because they want to be successful.) “Parang OA. Depende sa place.” “Maarte if they use it in public places.”

Use of English in Science and Mathematics

All of the respondents were positively inclined towards the use of English in teaching science and mathematics as shown in Table 3. They agreed that English is the language of science and mathematics because all materials that they use are written in English. They also stated that scientific and mathematical terms are very difficult to translate in English and that there is an abundance of terms that do not have any equivalent terms in Filipino. 

Table 3: Use of English in Science and Mathematics Subjects

“ English is a must in teaching science and mathematics.” “Mahirap po talaga kasi mahirap mag-explain sa students” (It’s difficult to explain to students) “May terms na di mo talaga ma-express sa English” (There are terms which cannot be expressed in English.) “I agree that English should be used in teaching science and mathematics because there are terms which cannot be explained in Filipino, that only English term can describe.” “I think we should use English because science is usually published in English.” “Sa Science, it’s okay… maraming words na hindi pwede i-translate.” ( In science, it’s okay…  there are many words, which cannot be translated.) “It’s much better to use English kasi if we use our language, Filipino, more complicated.” (It’s much better to use English because if we use our language, Filipino, more complicated.) “We should use English in explaining…. but we can use Tagalog so that students will understand.” “English should be used as a medium of instruction provided that in explaining terminologies, the processes in mathematics, we must use Filipino.” “It’s good.” “In English but I don’t think it should be that strict.” “Dapat English ang gamitin.” (English should be used.)

The findings show that respondents suggested that both languages be allowed as media of instruction for teaching these content subjects. Moreover, fifty eight percent (58%) suggested that the bilingual policy, which is presently implemented, indicated the use of Filipino as an alternative medium of instruction for science and mathematics. Forty two percent (42%) agreed on the retention of English as the only medium of instruction. Two participants maintained the use of English but suggested for the improvement of English language training of the future teachers handling science and mathematics subjects.

   Findings reveal that exposure to the English language of these teachers would truly be advantageous. A hundred percent of the respondents suggested several options for teacher development. Twenty-six percent (26%) cited reading English books and magazines as an effective measure in acquiring new English vocabulary. Attending seminars, workshops, trainings and enrolling in English courses are suggested by thirty seven percent (37%) of the participants. Thirty seven percent (37%) opted for actual practice and use of the English language inside and outside the classroom as constructive in gaining fluency. 

Discussion

There are four clear areas which this study has focused on: the concept of English, the attitude towards English as a language, the attitude towards users of English and the use of English as medium of instruction for science and mathematics. The last area under investigation can provide great implications for the present Bilingual Policy of the Philippines.

   First, historically, English has proven to be the language which most Filipinos have favored. The fact that it has remained steadfastly as the official language in spite of the fact that the Philippines is no longer under American rule, has supported this finding.  In the study by Tupas (2003), it is pointed out that language stalwarts like Sibayan and Gonzales of the Philippines, recognize the continuing status of English in the Philippines and detail its use as follows: 1) English as a social stratifier; 2) despite the bilingual education in Filipino and English, all rewards are accrued due to English; 3) the Filipino elite continue to hold on to their power partly through English; 4) it is from the English – competent economic and political elite that the leaders of the country are most likely to emerge. 

    As the Philippines recognizes the need to establish the national language, Filipino, English has remained resolutely a popular language. In fact, Cruz (2004) stated in his recent newspaper column that even at this time, most of the official notices, laws, court decisions, bar and board examinations and even the Constitution, are published mostly in English.  

   At some point, English seems to be a “more” official language than Filipino as the latter is still in the process of establishing its status after having been established just recently to include some words from major regional dialects all over the country. What is clear though is that English is a language that continuously enjoys a more privileged status in the Philippines.

   Second, the concept of English among the respondents suggests their attitudes towards the English language. Admittedly, respondents have positive attitudes towards the language. With this attitude, a language is most likely to flourish as indicated by Hohental (2003) and Choi (2003). 

   Third, English language users are perceived to belong to the middle and upper bracket level of society. Similar to some Asian countries, the Philippines seems to have accrued to the idea of private schools affording to provide better training in English than public or government schools. Nunan’s report (2003) on global English in Asia, asserts that children who can be offered private and tutorial lessons have better chances in learning English than those who are sent to public schools as in the case of China. This is also alluded to in the same findings of Tupas (2003) that in reality, English seems to be a social stratifier in the Philippines. Most Filipinos may have high regard for English and they believe that Filipinos who speak this language very well belong to the upper crust of the society where the language is the medium even at home.

   The last point to be considered is the implications of the attitudes of the users towards the use of English as the designated language for science and mathematics as specifically spelled out by the Restructured Basic Education Curriculum (RBEC) in adherence to the Bilingual Education Policy. The choice of English as medium of instruction was anchored on the content-based approach. 

   Ting (2003) suggests that legislation often precedes change in language-use behavior and language attitudes but it has to be put on-hold until people are more receptive to the use of the desired or target language. Shameem (2004) agrees that decision on effective language use will continue to be made by policy makers and teachers who act instinctively and as their attitudes dictate unless language education is taken seriously. Nunan (2003) alarmingly writes that a number of Asian countries invest a great deal of their resources in English learning often at the expense of the curriculum but evidence suggests that they have not achieved fully the desired results. It is suggested therefore that language planning and policies should consider attitudes of the language users, more particularly, the teachers and the learners who would be the beneficiaries of the policies. Beyond legislation and policy-making, research on English language teaching in particular (as in the case of the Philippines), not in general, should be meticulously satisfied.

Conclusions

Responses gathered by means of robotfotos and interviewing have revealed insights into the attitudes and perceptions of the use of English by student teachers in the teaching of science and mathematics in this study in the Philippines. As the designated medium of instruction, English takes the forefront for teachers who are not necessarily specialists in the English language but are users for the benefit of teaching their subjects. Mantle-Bromley (1995) believes that without teacher efforts, student attitudes may become less positive. This was further corroborated by the findings of Wright (1999) that teachers, as inside-school factors, have a strong perceived influence on student attitudes. 

   These findings have been similar to Pascasio’s (2002), where research revealed that proficiency affects language attitudes to both English and Filipino. Both fluent and non-fluent speakers of English and Filipino have positive attitudes towards English, and those who are more proficient in English have more favorable attitudes towards English and Filipino than those who are less proficient. 

   Though generally, the respondents adhere to the use of English, the findings suggest that they do not necessarily agree with the sole use of English as the medium of instruction. Respondents are inclined to use Filipino every now and then in instances where they feel that students do not comprehend the topics very well. Respondents assume that the comprehension of the students is highly dependent on the language use. The findings suggest that English terms in science and mathematics are difficult and it is the understanding of the lessons through discussions and exemplification using the English language that seems to pose the problem.

     Most respondents realize the necessity of the science and mathematics teachers as facilitators of language learning in the classroom. By using language arts skills of speaking, listening and writing, teachers can identify students’ scientific understandings (Akerson, 2002). Student teachers seem to agree in principle that this should be so. The findings suggest that respondents concede that English is a necessary language in teaching science and mathematics. They seem to consider English as necessary since terms in science and mathematics are all in English. Materials in the form of textbooks and reference books are also written in English. Difficulty in translating these terms in the native language is a great dilemma for most of them. The majority agrees that it is a very important language at present since this world has become “borderless”. Respondents seem to admit that knowing how to speak English is an advantage.  

   However, the study also reveals that the implementation of language policy is yet to be fully realized. The goal of producing individuals who are proficient in both Filipino and English has yet to be attained even at the level of higher education. The majority of the respondents use Filipino in teaching their lessons because they point out that this is the only way that students will be able to understand the lesson. Students, they argue, comprehend the lesson better or only, when they use Filipino. At some point, the bilingual policy was even a point of confusion for some respondents who defined it as the actual use of both languages inside the classroom. This is quite in contrast with the existing policy that clearly states the scope and limitations of English and Filipino use.

   The attitudes of the respondents towards the language and its speakers can be taken positively. Pascasio (2002) revealed that language use and positive attitude are important in achieving language proficiency. There is a great possibility that Filipino student teachers believe in the capacity of the English language in making their students learn. However, it is suggested that in language and curriculum planning, teachers from various disciplines, most especially in this case, language teachers and content-subject teachers should be consulted. Using the content-based approach in the curriculum, planners and implementers should be guided by the principles of collaboration and teamwork. Language is not taught and learned solely for its sake. For students who are learning ESL in English-medium schools, English is both a target and a medium of Education: They are not only learning English but are learning through it as well (Gibbons, 2003).

   Language is a tool for all teachers. Its use should be guided by actual observations and practice of the classroom teacher. It is argued that only by exploring and understanding the distinct communities that ESL (English as a Second Language) and science teachers belong to, can we begin to understand how teachers can negotiate shared understandings (Arkoudis, 2003). 

   Although the study was limited to nineteen respondents from two institutions, further studies can be undertaken using respondents in other teacher-training institutions across the country for more conclusive databases. Areas for further studies include: To what extent does attitude affect learning? What positive attitudes should be developed among content subject teachers towards the medium of instruction? What are the implications of a positive language attitude towards the attainment of effective learning?

As teachers and researchers, there is a necessity to probe deeper into these questions.

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Wright, M. (1999). Influences on learner attitudes towards foreign language and culture. Educational Research, 41(2), 197-208.

Appendix 1: Guide Questions for the Interview

A Thoughts on the English language What comes to your mind when you hear the word “English”? When do you use the English language? What do you think of Filipinos who speak English well in school and at home? What do you think of people who use the English language in a place beyond school? What do you think is the position of the English language in our culture? Should all Filipinos learn how to speak English? What do you think of Filipinos who try hard to speak English? When is the right time or place to speak English? B. Attitudes towards English as a Medium of Instruction in Teaching science and mathematics What can you say about the statement: “All teachers are language teachers”? What is your opinion about the use of English in science and mathematics? Are you familiar with the use of English as the designated language for teaching science and mathematics? Can Filipino as a language ever replace English as a medium of instruction in teaching mathematics and science? Will you appreciate the English language better when taught by a native speaker? Do you think you will be a more effective and credible teacher if you use English in teaching your subject? Do you think that students understand you more when you speak in English? If not, do you think it is more effective to speak the native language when students seem not to understand the subject? Give your comments about teachers who speak Filipino in a science and mathematics class. What are your comments regarding teachers who speak both in Filipino and English during the science and mathematics classes? What affects your communication skills in English? In what way have you developed your communication skills in English? What can you say about teachers who have difficulty in using the English language inside and outside the classroom? In what way do they affect the extent of language learning of the students? What suggestions can you give to teachers who cannot speak English well during science and mathematics classes? When should teachers be allowed to speak English or Filipino in teaching their subjects? How about the students? 16. What policies should govern the use of English and Filipino as medium of instruction in teaching science and mathematics?

Adolescence Filed under ( Adolescence News ) by edy-koerniawan

adolescence in girls ~ Adolescence :

Definition

Sometimes referred to as teenage years, youth, or puberty , adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and maturity, occurring roughly between the ages of 10 and 20.

Description

The word adolescence is Latin in origin, derived from the verb adolescere, which means "to grow into adulthood." Adolescence is a time of moving from the immaturity of childhood into the maturity of adulthood. There is no single event or boundary line that denotes the end of childhood or the beginning of adolescence. Rather, experts think of the passage from childhood into and through adolescence as composed of a set of transitions that unfold gradually and that touch upon many aspects of the individual's behavior, development, and relationships. These transitions are biological, cognitive, social, and emotional.

Puberty

The biological transition of adolescence, or puberty, is perhaps the most observable sign that adolescence has begun. Technically, puberty refers to the period during which an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction. More broadly speaking, however, puberty is used as a collective term to refer to all the physical changes that occur in the growing girl or boy as the individual passes from childhood into adulthood.

The timing of physical maturation varies widely. In the United States, menarche (onset of menstruation ) typically occurs around age 12, although some youngsters start puberty when they are only eight or nine, others when they are well into their teens. The duration of puberty also varies greatly: 18 months to six years in girls and two to five years in boys.

The physical changes of puberty are triggered by hormones, chemical substances in the body that act on specific organs and tissues. In boys a major change incurred during puberty is the increased production of testosterone, a male sex hormone, while girls experience increased production of the female hormone estrogen. In both sexes, a rise in growth hormone produces the adolescent growth spurt, the pronounced increase in height and weight that marks the first half of puberty.

Perhaps the most dramatic changes of puberty involve sexuality. Internally, through the development of primary sexual characteristics, adolescents become capable of sexual reproduction. Externally, as secondary sexual characteristics appear, girls and boys begin to look like mature women and men. In boys primary and secondary sexual characteristics usually emerge in a predictable order, with rapid growth of the testes and scrotum, accompanied by the appearance of pubic hair. About a year later, when the growth spurt begins, the penis also grows larger, and pubic hair becomes coarser, thicker, and darker. Later still comes the growth of facial and body hair, and a gradual lowering of the voice. Around mid-adolescence internal changes begin making a boy capable of producing and ejaculating sperm.

In girls, sexual characteristics develop in a less regular sequence. Usually, the first sign of puberty is a slight elevation of the breasts, but sometimes this is preceded by the appearance of pubic hair. Pubic hair changes from sparse and downy to denser and coarser. Concurrent with these changes is further breast development . In teenage girls, internal sexual changes include maturation of the uterus, vagina, and other parts of the reproductive system. Menarche, the first menstrual period, happens relatively late in puberty. Regular ovulation and the ability to carry a baby to full term usually follow menarche by several years.

Cognitive transition

A second element of the passage through adolescence is a cognitive transition. Compared to children, adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient, and generally more complex. This is evident in five distinct areas of cognition.

First, during adolescence individuals become better able than children to think about what is possible, instead of limiting their thought to what is real. Whereas children's thinking is oriented to the here and now (i.e., to things and events that they can observe directly), adolescents are able to consider what they observe against a backdrop of what is possible—they can think hypothetically.

Second, during the passage into adolescence, individuals become better able to think about abstract ideas. For example, adolescents find it easier than children to comprehend the sorts of higher-order, abstract logic inherent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. The adolescent's greater facility with abstract thinking also permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to social and ideological matters. This is clearly seen in the adolescent's increased facility and interest in thinking about interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, and morality—topics that involve such abstract concepts as friendship, faith, democracy, fairness, and honesty.

Third, during adolescence individuals begin thinking more often about the process of thinking itself, or metacognition. As a result, adolescents may display increased introspection and self-consciousness. Although improvements in metacognitive abilities provide important intellectual advantages, one potentially negative byproduct of these advances is the tendency for adolescents to develop a sort of egocentrism, or intense preoccupation with the self. Acute adolescent egocentrism sometimes leads teenagers to believe that others are constantly watching and evaluating them. Psychologists refer to this as the imaginary audience.

A fourth change in cognition is that thinking tends to become multidimensional, rather than limited to a single issue. Whereas children tend to think about things one aspect at a time, adolescents describe themselves and others in more differentiated and complicated terms and find it easier to look at problems from multiple perspectives. Being able to understand that people's personalities are not one-sided, or that social situations can have different interpretations, depending on one's point of view, permits the adolescent to have far more sophisticated and complicated relationships with other people.

Finally, adolescents are more likely than children to see things as relative, rather than absolute. They are more likely to question others' assertions and less likely to accept "facts" as absolute truths. This increase in relativism can be particularly exasperating to parents, who may feel that their adolescent children question everything just for the sake of argument.

Emotional transition

Adolescence is also a period of emotional transition, marked by changes in the way individuals view themselves and in their capacity to function independently. As adolescents mature intellectually and undergo cognitive changes, they come to perceive themselves in more sophisticated and differentiated ways. Compared with children, who tend to describe themselves in relatively simple, concrete terms, adolescents are more likely to employ complex, abstract, and psychological self-characterizations. As individuals' self-conceptions become more abstract and as they become more able to see themselves in psychological terms, they become more interested in understanding their own personalities and why they behave the way they do.

For most adolescents, establishing a sense of autonomy, or independence, is as important a part of the emotional transition out of childhood as is establishing a sense of identity. During adolescence, there is a movement away from the dependency typical of childhood toward the autonomy typical of adulthood. For example, older adolescents do not generally rush to their parents whenever they are upset, worried, or in need of assistance. They do not see their parents as all-knowing or all-powerful, and often have a great deal of emotional energy wrapped up in relationships outside the family . In addition, older adolescents are able to see and interact with their parents as people, not just as their parents. Many parents find, for example, that they can confide in their adolescent children, something that was not possible when their children were younger, or that their adolescent children can easily sympathize with them when they have had a hard day at work.

Being independent, however, means more than merely feeling independent. It also means being able to make decisions and to select a sensible course of action. This is an especially important capability in contemporary society, where many adolescents are forced to become independent decision makers at an early age. In general, researchers find that decision-making abilities improve over the course of the adolescent years, with gains continuing well into the later years of high school.

Many parents wonder about the susceptibility of adolescents to peer pressure . In general, studies that contrast parent and peer influences indicate that in some situations, peers' opinions are more influential, while in others, parents' are more influential. Specifically, adolescents are more likely to conform to their peers' opinions when it comes to short-term, day-to-day, and social matters—styles of dress, tastes in music, and choices among leisure activities. This is particularly true during junior high school and the early years of high school. When it comes to long-term questions concerning educational or occupational plans, however, or values, religious beliefs, and ethical issues, teenagers are influenced in a major way by their parents.

Susceptibility to the influence of parents and peers changes during adolescence. In general, during childhood, boys and girls are highly oriented toward their parents and less so toward their peers; peer pressure during the early elementary school years is not especially strong. As they approach adolescence, however, children become somewhat less oriented toward their parents and more oriented toward their peers, and peer pressure begins to escalate. During early adolescence, conformity to parents continues to decline and conformity to peers and peer pressure continues to rise. It is not until middle adolescence that genuine behavioral independence emerges, when conformity to parents as well as peers declines.

Social transition

Accompanying the biological, cognitive, and emotional transitions of adolescence are important changes in the adolescent's social relationships. Developmentalists have spent considerable time charting the changes that take place with friends and with family members as the individual moves through the adolescent years.
One of the most noteworthy aspects of the social transition into adolescence is the increase in the amount of time individuals spend with their peers. Although relations with age-mates exist well before adolescence, during the teenage years they change in significance and structure. For example, there is a sharp increase during adolescence in the sheer amount of time individuals spend with their peers and in the relative time they spend in the company of peers versus adults. In the United States, well over half of the typical adolescent's waking hours are spent with peers, as opposed to only 15 percent with adults, including parents. Second, during adolescence, peer groups function much more often without adult supervision than they do during childhood, and more often involve friends of the opposite sex.
Finally, whereas children's peer relationships are limited mainly to pairs of friends and relatively small groups—three or four children at a time, for example—adolescence marks the emergence of larger groups of peers, or crowds. Crowds are large collectives of similarly stereotyped individuals who may or may not spend much time together. In contemporary American high schools, typical crowds are "jocks," "brains," "nerds," "populars," "druggies," and so on. In contrast to cliques, crowds are not settings for adolescents' intimate interactions or friendships, but instead serve to locate the adolescent (to himself and to others) within the social structure of the school. As well, the crowds themselves tend to form a sort of social hierarchy or map of the school, and different crowds are seen as having different degrees of status or importance.

The importance of peers during early adolescence coincides with changes in individuals' needs for intimacy. As children begin to share secrets with their friends, loyalty and commitment develop. During adolescence, the search for intimacy intensifies, and self-disclosure between best friends becomes an important pastime. Teenagers, especially girls, spend a good deal of time discussing their innermost thoughts and feelings, trying to understand one another. The discovery that they tend to think and feel the same as someone else becomes another important basis of friendship.

One of the most important social transitions that takes place in adolescence concerns the emergence of sexual and romantic relationships. In contemporary society, most young people begin dating sometime during early adolescence. Dating during adolescence can mean a variety of different things, from group activities that bring males and females together (without much actual contact between the sexes); to group dates, in which a group of boys and girls go out jointly (and spend part of the time as couples and part of the time in large groups); to casual dating as couples; and to serious involvement with a steady boyfriend or girlfriend. More adolescents have experience in mixed-sex group activities like parties or dances than dating, and more have experience in dating than in having a serious boyfriend or girlfriend.

Most adolescents' first experience with sex falls into the category of "autoerotic behavior," sexual behavior that is experienced alone. The most common autoerotic activities reported by adolescents are erotic fantasies and masturbation . By the time most adolescents are in high school, they have had some experience with sexual behaviors in the context of a relationship. The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), a self-reported survey of a national representative sample of high school students in grades nine to 12, indicated that in 2003, 46.7 percent of the students reported having had sex. By grade level, the rates were 32.8 percent for ninth grade, 44.1 percent for tenth grade, 53.2 percent for eleventh grade, and 61.6 percent for twelfth grade.

Common problems

Generally speaking, most young people are able to negotiate the biological, cognitive, emotional, and social transitions of adolescence successfully. Some adolescents, however, are at risk of developing certain problems, such as:

• eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa , bulimia, or obesity
• drug or alcohol use
• depression or suicidal ideation
• violent behavior
• anxiety, stress, or sleep disorders
• unsafe sexual activities

Parental concerns

Many parents dread the onset of adolescence, fearing that their child will become hostile and rebellious and begin to reject his or family. Although it is incorrect to characterize adolescence as a time when the family ceases to be important, or as a time of inherent and inevitable family conflict, adolescence is a period of significant change and reorganization in family relationships. Family relationships change most around the time of puberty, with increasing conflict and decreasing closeness occurring in many parent-adolescent relationships. Changes in the ways adolescents view family rules and regulations may contribute to increased disagreement between them and their parents. Family conflict during this stage is more likely to take the form of bickering over day-to-day issues than outright fighting. Similarly, the diminished closeness is more likely to be manifested in increased privacy on the part of the adolescent and diminished physical affection between teenagers and parents, rather than any serious loss of love or respect between parents and children. Research suggests that this distancing is temporary, and that family relationships may become less conflicted and more intimate during late adolescence.

When to call the doctor

Although changes—biologically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially—are to be expected during adolescence, certain inappropriate behaviors, drastic changes in personality or physical appearance, or abnormal sexual development may warrant a phone call to a physician or counselor. These include:

• extreme changes in weight (loss or gain) or excessive dieting
• sleep disturbances
• social withdrawal or loss of interest in activities
• sudden personality changes
• signs of alcohol or drug use
• talk or threats of suicide
• violent or aggressive behavior
• atypical (early or late) onset of puberty; in girls, failure to menstruate by the age of 16

KEY TERMS

Anorexia nervosa —An eating disorder marked by an unrealistic fear of weight gain, self-starvation, and distortion of body image. It most commonly occurs in adolescent females.
Bulimia nervosa —An eating disorder characterized by binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behavior, such as vomiting, misusing laxatives, or excessive exercise.
Hormone —A chemical messenger secreted by a gland or organ and released into the bloodstream. It travels via the bloodstream to distant cells where it exerts an effect.
Menarche —The first menstrual cycle in a girl's life.
Metacognition —Awareness of the process of cognition.

Resources

BOOKS

Steinberg, L. Adolescence, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.

PERIODICALS

Blondell, Richard D., Michael B. Foster, and Kamlesh C. Dave. "Disorders of Puberty." American Family Physician 60 (July 1999): 209-24.
Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance: United States, 2003." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 53, no. SS-2 (May 21, 2004): 12-20.

ORGANIZATIONS

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 3615 Wisconsin Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20016-3007. (202) 966-7300. Web site: http://www.aacap.org.
Society for Research on Adolescence, 3131 S. State St., Suite 302, Ann Arbor, MI 48108-1623. Web site: http://www.s-ra.org.

WEB SITES

Paulu, Nancy. "Helping Your Child through Adolescence." U.S. Department of Education. August 2002 [cited December 31, 2004]. Available online at: http://www.ed.gov/parents/academic/help/adolescence/index.html.
Rutherford, Kim. "A Parent's Guide to Surviving Adolescence." KidsHealth. June 2002 [cited December 31, 2004]. Available online at: http://kidshealth.org/parent/growth/growing/adolescence.html.

Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D. Stephanie Dionne Sherk

Seminar Response Week 9 – Post-Positivism Filed under ( Education News ) by edy-koerniawan

Seminar Response Week 9 – Post-Positivism : Kozinets (2001) takes an ethnographic approach to articulating the meanings of Star Trek’s culture of consumption. In this article, he looks at consumption meanings in both macrocultural, microcultural, and informal contexts, yielding a data set of “440,000 words of field notes, interviews, and member checks; 260,000 words of artifactual data; and 267 photographs.” Underlining his approach was the notion of articulation theory (Hall 1980), which analyzes linkages between social concepts such as social class and race or cultural belief. Kozinets’s findings help build a theoretical framework of fan-based consumption patterns under a utopian vision. Kozinets also applies Grossberg’s (1992) ‘mattering maps,’ which help to organize self-identity through places, purposes, and moods to “guide the investment of affect.”

The ethnography can be summarized by five major consumption themes: 1) utopian sanctuary; 2) stigma; 3) religion and myth; 4) detachment, affinities, and practices; and, 5) utopian and commercial enterprise. By piecing together the qualitative data with articulation theory and an understanding of mattering maps, Kozinets yields some larger scale findings from what seems like a novel consumer population. However, this post-positivist critique of consumption cultures lends itself well to an empirical study of brands with cult-like followings.

Brands such as Starbucks and Apple have both grown to mythic and religious proportion—the result of their visionary founders’ creations—with brand devotees facing stigma from casual users. Additionally, these brands’ ‘superfans’ assumer higher levels of cynical attitudes when the brands’ founders appear to make business decisions that placate shareholders, rather than appeal to the superfans. As a result of these brands’ cult-like statuses, we should be able to empirically research the general hypothesis that subcultures mediate the interaction between active audience and active media by creating a methodology that looks at cultures of consumption in a positivist context. Both experimental and survey data should test for these effects.

In the first phase of the research design, we use experimental data to determine the effect of cult brands on the propensity to purchase. In this within-subjects experiment, we hypothesize that consumers tend to choose brands with mythical stature when the consumer has a congruent disposition toward the founder’s brand philosophy, controlling for product preference. In the first step of the experiment, the subject will be given brief biographies both on Steve Jobs and on a fictional executive with a similar background for a rival company. After reading the biographies, the subjects would then be given the choice to buy one of two mp3 players, both of which are given equivalent product attributes. In the second step of the experiment, the subject would be shown a commercial promoting a cup of coffee for Starbucks and a commercial promoting a cup of coffee for a rival company. After seeing these commercials, the subjects would then be given the choice to buy one of two cups of coffee, both of which are given equivalent product attributes. Finally, the subjects would be asked to provide open-ended answers to a few questions on self-identity.

In the second phase of the research design, we use survey data to determine the path linkages between mass audience, mass media, and subcultures. Using secondary corporate data on marketing inflows and outflows from both Starbucks and Apple, correlated with primary survey data of the general consumer population, we should be able to determine the differential, mediating role that subcultures play in these consumption behaviors.

In a certain regard, similar types of questions have already been hypothesized in the brand literature on the ‘halo effect’ (Beckwith and Lehmann 1975; Holbrook 1983; Leuthesser, Kohli, and Harich 1995; Bagozzi 1996). This round of empirical testing not only extends the literature on halo effects, but additionally furthers the literature on mass media cultures of consumption as it relates to self-identity. As Kozinets writes: “entertainment content has become a key differentiator in virtually every aspect of the broader consumer economy” (p. 85). However, these cultures of consumption exist beyond just entertainment, filtering mass media culture into all realms of self-identity.

New Program Helps Teens Stop Dating Violence Filed under ( Education News ) by edy-koerniawan

New Program Helps Teens Stop Dating Violence : The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has released information on a new program aimed at reducing teen dating violence. Choose Respect is an initiative that helps teens form healthy relationships to prevent dating violence before it starts. Violence within teen relationships has become more prevalent than ever.

According to "Dating Violence Facts" on the CDC website, about one in 11 teens reports being a victim of physical dating violence each year. A startling one in four teens reports verbal, physical, emotional, or sexual violence each year and about one in five high school girls has been physically or sexually abused by a dating partner. These facts are evidence of a disturbing trend.

The adolescent years are crucial in developing social skills. What teens learn during those years may have a profound effect on how they choose friends and mates as adults. Things such as good communication, honesty, and knowing one's limitations are important factors in a healthy relationship. Dating violence is associated with unhealthy sexual behaviors that can lead to unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV infections.

Choose Respect helps parents, caregivers, older teens, educators, and other caring adults motivate teens to challenge harmful beliefs about dating violence and take steps to form healthy and respectful relationships. The program has a 60-minute training video called Dating Matters for adults to understand the risk factors and warning signs associated with teen dating violence.

The Alabama Coalition Against Domestic Violence suggests looking out for the following signs that a partner in a relationship could potentially become violent.

• quick involvement
• extreme jealousy
• unpredictable mood swings
• abused former partners
• isolating his/her mate from their friends
• blames others for his/her problems or feelings
• explosive anger
• uses force during an argument
• verbally abusive

Conversely, if a teen is behaving in a violent way, the CDC offers the following suggestions:

• create a safe environment for discussion
• encourage the teen to talk but do not force him/her to open up
• thank the teen for sharing
• seek professional help for him/her through youth counseling or a hotline
• show the teen how he or she can maintain his or her desires and needs without using violent behaviors.

In many cases, the teen who is exhibiting violent behavior is suffering as well as the victim and his/her needs must also be met to break the cycle.

Teens Dating Dangerously Filed under ( Education News ) by edy-koerniawan

Dating Violence : Teens Dating Dangerously

How Does Dating Violence Start?

Dating violence is a concept that is somewhat foreign to our society in which a relationship becomes overwhelmingly dangerous and psychologically comforting at the same time. Teenagers often experience several vulnerabilities while progressing through adolescence. Some of the most fragile areas associated to this developmental process is the relationships they have with their parents, peers, and members of the opposite sex.

Mutual interdependence becomes increasingly prevalent in each of these categories, while the attention from the opposite sex, as little or as belittling as it may be, fuels a teenage girl's emotionality for experiencing importance, beauty, and desire.

Some risk factors pertaining to the type of abuse that is typically found in teenage relationships includes the dominant partner having a short temper, embarrassing you in front of others, pressuring you sexually, limiting your rights within the relationship in a variety of circumstances.

The Abusive Cycle

Relationship abuse is often cyclical in that it is actually a psychological and behavioral pattern that may be summed up in a series of stages. Initially, the relationship begins in a state of excitement in which both parties are newly fulfilled and practically giddy about one another, in a way that is even psychologically vulnerable. Such vulnerability is illustrated in the emotions and level of dependence that each party has within the new relationship, as they both may find themselves rushing into a level of commitment.

This happens because the need to be desired is psychologically and emotionally comforting on many levels. It should be noted that this form of comfort is not equivalent with parental comfort or acceptance from one's peers.

Next, there is an opportunity for tension and frustration to develop in which the abuser will press the boundaries to see where their parameters are, while making sure that a sufficient amount of affection is also integrated into the abusive behavior. If this is not done appropriately, the victim of the relationship will flee and that is not what the abuser is aiming for here.

Individuals in relationships like this may claim to experience relational growing pains and just learning one another's interpersonal dynamics; however, this should be a red flag for peers and parents that the relationship is unhealthy. Any hot and cold behaviorisms should be recognized, as inconsistent patterns initiate this process of abuse. In methods to cope with feeling like there is no escaping an abusive relationship, the victim of this situation may withdrawal from their peers because they are embarrassed and they secretly are aware that there is an issue, but fleeing the relationship is perceived to be much more detrimental than staying.

They may even find themselves overcompensating for their partner's abusive characteristics by lying to others, exaggerating about minor events to depict a fulfilling relationship, and even clinging tighter to the abuser for the need to be what they need and to further understand why they are behaving in such a manner. The last stage is violent, and described as being the shortest in duration. This stage is one of desperation in which the victim will begin to respond to any sexual, physical, or psychological abuse that they are experiencing. The victim of the relationship will begin to push back.

The victim will feel a loss that is described as rejection or grief in which psychological humiliation overwhelms them in a manner in which retaliation is therefore required. This stage is considered to be the most dangerous because this response could push the abuser to inflict greater harm and make matters much worse.

Finally, the last stage of this unfortunate cycle embodies a time of apologetic pleas, gifts, and promises of change from the abuser as they realize that they are close to losing their victim altogether if they do not ease up on the level of abuse. The victim more often than not, will trust their abuser in their cry for change; however, only a few are able to realize that this is a behavioral element that rarely changes.

Statistical Information on Abuse

Unfortunately, dating violence is not perceived to be as important as domestic violence; however, dating violence is a precursor in and of itself for domestic violence. Teens are at a much higher risk for being in abusive relationships than adults. Out of every 5 females in high school, 1 of them is reportedly being physically or sexually abused by a partner they are dating.

Such abuse is found to be inflicted on individuals that range between 16 to 19 years old in approximately 94% of the cases. Furthermore, half of the adult sex offenders report that their first sexual offense took place before they were 18 years old.

Teens that are in abusive relationships are at a much higher risk for suicide, eating disorders, substance abuse, poor academic standing, anxiety, and for having low self-esteem. Teens will more often than not, keep this abuse a secret, as a pattern of codependency is birthed and an overwhelming level of security is both damaged and yet reinforced. This takes place because the desire of feeling needed and wanted outweighs the negative aspects of being abused.

Dating violence is dangerous for many reasons and it doesn't affect individuals based on their race, level of education, or level of income. Dating violence is a noxious component that is socially and psychologically crafted, embracing abusive elements of physical, sexual, and emotional debilitation.

References:

American Bar Association. (2006).Teen Dating Violence Facts. National Teen Dating Violence Prevention Initiative. http://www.abanet.org. Retrieved from, http://www.abanet.org/unmet/teendating/facts.pdf.

T.E.A.R. (2007). Teens Experiencing Abusive Relationships. http://www.teensagainstabuse.org. Retrieved from, http://www.teensagainstabuse.org/index.php?q=quizMe.

A Critique of a Crucial Theory of Leisure time Filed under ( Education News ) by edy-koerniawan

Critique and Emancipation : A Critique of a Crucial Theory of Leisure time

In Critique and Emancipation: Towards a vital Concept associated with Leisure, John L. Hemingway urges the ownership of a crucial theory associated with leisure time. He begins by directed up the weaknesses from the traditional theories and then proposes for implementing the crucial theory associated with leisure time to higher understand both leisure time and culture and then to make use of that understanding to consider political motion to change culture. The basis with this political motion may be the notion of going for a developmental view of human culture rather than an acquisitive a key component perspective, therefore emancipating the person through whats as to the could be.

The three traditional theories associated with leisure time and culture which Hemingway describes and critiques for his or her weaknesses are positivism, post-positivism, and constructivism. Very first, he or she describes positivism since the most familiar paradigm used by social researchers, which is based ontologically about the idea that one may discover an external actuality and describe this by making progressively common claims about causal laws and regulations which clarify the relationship between observed phenomena. Under positivism theory, such laws and regulations can be made about human behavior whatever the historical or social characteristics from the culture becoming observed, and one may use value-free measurements to try ideas and analyze this particular information and create propositions and pull conclusions. Even though Hemingway does not mention this particular in his dialogue, this particular design is derived from the physical sciences and was designed to create the evaluation associated with social behavior as objective as possible, about the assumption that one may discover laws and regulations about human behavior almost as much ast one can discover laws and regulations concerning the physical globe.

Nevertheless, a major weak point of the theory associated with positivism is the fact that human behavior is a lot more complicated and human awareness of oneself and ones culture affects human behavior. Moreover, a persons observer attempting to measure human behavior affects the item becoming studied, and it is not possible to split up human behavior from the historical framework or from the social methods of the people observed.

The 2nd traditional theory Hemingway describes is postpositivism, that was developed to deal with the flaws within positivism. As he describes this, postpositivism continues to claim theres a knowable external actuality, which can be explained claims concerning the laws and regulations regulating how that external actuality works. Nevertheless, individuals claims are only able to be approximations, simply because external actuality should never be recognized in its totality. Yet postpositivism still retains the knower or individual attempting to research this particular trend could be outside of exactly what he or she is attempting to research, though this particular separation cant ever be complete. Moreover, because any kind of understanding are only approximate, postpositivism retains that it is not possible to make use of objective measurements, for example by utilizing experiments to try theory. Instead, the researcher must seek out a community associated with students within ones area of great interest to achieve a scholarly consensus about what propositions and conclusions should be accepted or not.

The actual weak point heres continuing to consider the knower could be outside of the item from the research. Moreover, theres a fuzziness in the idea of understanding something through a number of statements that are just approximations, and it seems doubtful that one must rely on a general opinion by other students to determine if something reaches least a precise approximation associated with something or not. A question instantly occurs about how is a to determine who is an acceptable college student for making a common sense and what kind of credentials such a college student should have to become appropriate being an expert for moving common sense. Another weak point is having impartial idol judges, because every college student is going to be relying on his or her own historical affects and social background, which contribute dispositions towards the evaluation process. After that, as well, theres a condition in determining how many students are necessary to create a sufficient scholarly general opinion, and the other problem might be these scholars may not have time or curiosity about making a common sense. A further problem is determining the criteria for how this particular general opinion is to be accomplished and what is to be considered a general opinion. Is general opinion to become accomplished via voting, therefore, does thereve to become 100% agreement, or exactly what are an adequate vast majority? One more trouble with the thought of general opinion is the fact that an individuals common sense might be relying on their relationship with the individual becoming judged, to ensure that he or she might provide a advantageous common sense in order to somebody he or she understands personally or that develops from a particular organization, whereas he or she might give an unfavorable common sense in order to somebody that is unknown or does not have the symptoms of the credentials from the suitable organization.