Critical Theory & Feminist Epistemology Filed under ( Education News ) by edy-koerniawan

Feminist Epistemology ~ Critical Theory and Feminist Epistemology

Introduction

The following discussion will analyze the ontological, axiological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions of critical theory and feminist epistemology. The critical theory and feminist epistemology are examined and correlated to the field of criminal justice to provide application of theory to practice.

Ontological Assumptions

Critical theory challenges the assumptions of logical positivism and that of interpretive epistemology, going beyond fact gathering and into a research process that encompasses multiple facets (McTaggart, 1997) of self-reflecting, planning, acting, and observing of others (as cited by Kidd & Kral, 2005). The ontological assumptions of critical theory are primarily comprised of social and empirical sociology (Scott, 1978).

Critical theory is an epistemological paradigm that may be categorized under the constructivist theory and incorporates the element of science as an approach to evaluating comprehension and understanding, interactions, transformations that promotes personal growth, in addition to embracing the concept of empowerment associated to this dynamic process (Kidd & Kral, 2005). Toulmin (1988) considered critical theory to be a practical form of philosophy that influences social science (as cited by Kidd & Kral, 2005).

One of several derivatives of critical theory, feminist epistemology, considers the conceptual inquiry of gender in correlation to the understanding of knowledge within a particular framework (Pressley, 2005). In other words, perceptions and beliefs are consequences or effects of what individuals know, based on their social context. Feminist epistemologists refrain from rejecting empiricism and are primarily attracted to examining knowledge construction and credit the disparities prevalent between men and women as a consequence of socialization (Pressley, 2005).

Axiological Assumptions

The axiological assumptions of critical theory consider the process of change to be a predominant factor in the lives of others. The role of the researcher is valuable; participants are aware that the researcher is engaging with them in the data collection process to offer an innovative perspective, understanding, and knowledge associated to with the topic of research. Furthermore, the researcher purports that through socio-cultural and structural understanding, it is feasible to empower lives and motivate others to change (Kidd & Kral, 2005).

There is a high level of subjectivity associated to critical theory due to the fact that in order to promote change, the researcher undergoes a process of partnership (Reason, 1994) with the participants and ultimately establishes a form of critical consciousness within the construction and development of goals, methods, and the gathering of data (as cited by Kidd & Kral, 2005). Marcus (1994) asserts that this process of self-criticality expressed by the researcher may be referred to as reflexivity.

The axiological assumptions of feminist epistemologists contend that science should incorporate cultural and social principles in the examination and evaluation of nature. This paradigm is contributory to society as gender is a cultural conceptualization that influences nature (Pressley, 2005). The axiological assumptions of feminist epistemology consider the implications associated to social bias, sexism, and androcentrism, recognizing value in ethics and politics. This perspective is developed on social values within scientific practice and supports subjective elements as an important concept in the cognitive process (Agra & Adan, n.d.).

According to Longino (1993), the feministic viewpoint states that scientific knowledge is constructed by individuals that interact with one another (as cited by Agra & Adan, n.d.). Therefore, the community is where standards and knowledge are adapted based on individuals’ aspirations and knowledge is ultimately a derivative dependent upon a particular community, their linguistics, and their interpretations associated to meaning. The reality of critical theory embraces a perspective that is Androcentric and Eurocentric while the feminist movement provides an alternative position to androcentrist biases that subsist in the development of science without women (Agra & Adan, n.d.).

The manner, in which individuals perceive one another within society, and the social system they are directly affiliated with, may produce adverse affects resulting in considerable discontent for others. The variations of social norms and values among cultures are referred to as cultural relativity (Straus, 2002). One may not realize what is socially acceptable within other cultures due to the fact that individuals continuously cultivate and feed off of social standards correlating to the society in which they cohabit.

Epistemological Assumptions

The epistemological assumptions of critical theory embrace a subjective stance versus that of an objective or empirical position. According to Rahman (1991), the process of producing knowledge involves an openness to learning that is equated with sharing ideas and respecting the knowledge of others as a means to implement action (as cited by Kidd & Kral, 2005). In regards to participatory action research, knowledge is correlated to action and participation. Through the researcher, participants are provided access to expertise pertaining to research and political action (Kidd & Kral, 2005). The critical theory implicates a partnership in relation to obtaining knowledge that provides a valuable perspective, establishing a reciprocated meeting place in which cultural differences are accepted and misinterpretations are minimized (Kidd & Kral, 2005).

Feminism is revolutionary; approaching feminist research with a less distorted perspective embraces two fundamental elements: a) if all knowledge is situated, it is therefore practical and socially constructed, and b) the location of women provides a privileged perspective in discovering various formations of truth (Agra & Adan, n.d.). The feminist perspective can be associated to Marxist tradition. The dominant population that has authority and control over the economic structure within society also has the power of influence over social relationships in other areas of interest (Liska & Messner, 1999). There is a competitive element associated between these two classifications that results in social conflict among law and the standard of living. In relation to social conflict, economic theorists consider this divergence between classes to be reflected among the control prevalent within the role of authority.

Methodological Assumptions

Methods are created and shaped over time (Smith, 1997) through the development and progression of action and reflection (as cited by Kidd & Klar, 2005). Inductive research methods are typically qualitative in nature (Ponterotto, 2005) incorporating the development of theory through the research process; this process is initiated in the identification of a problem (as cited by Kidd & Klar, 2005).

According to feminist ethnographies, methods are incorporated into the research process that examining morals, beliefs, and esteem. Methods producing knowledge range from surveys, drawings, story-telling (Ornelas, 1997) and can at times incorporate a quantitative method in the form of an anonymous questionnaire for individuals who are hesitant in disclosing information to researchers (as cited by Kidd & Klar). Feminist social scientists incorporate social science methodology into research practice and may examine the manner in which others become educated; the manner of what we know in the world and the process of how it continues to thrive, the conditions of employment, and various criteria associated to the presumptions of others (Pressley, 2005).

Methods pertaining solely to feminist epistemology may examine obstacles pertaining to the entrance, retention, and advancement of women, scientific and technological applications that are sexist, and the manner in which gendered models of nature and research modify social relations (Pressley, 2005).

Critical Theory and Feminist Epistemology within Criminal Justice

According to Buren (1975), critical theory is a necessity within the disciplinary field of criminal justice. Critical theory may examine the similarities and differences of organizational practice in addition to the framework shaping the foundations of our justice system with the goal of achieving justice and implementing order (Buren, 1975). Liberal feminists contend equality and treatment of men and women and the goals of law reform should consider the practices of responding to violence against women in the same manner that the law responds to violence against men (Hopkins, 2005). Cultural feminists assert that traditional religious, economic, political, and judicial organizations are typically masculine by nature and practice while radical feminists concentrate on the results of male domination of women in relation to bias crimes (Hopkins, 2005).

Critical or radical approaches to criminology are most closely correlated to Marxism. Karl Marx contended that social class in itself is the fundamental aspect pertaining to the conflict existent in the social process and it is this friction that defines social process and structure (Liska & Messner, 1999). According to Marx, the dynamic associated to the economic correlation to society encompasses the political, cultural, and religious institutions of society. The two dominant economic structures in society are the capitalists and the laborers. The capitalist’s reference the means of production and the owners of these organizations while the laborers’ relate to the individuals employed within these organizations (Liska & Messner, 1999). “This political power is used to manipulate the legal and criminal justice system to promote the interests of the capital class and to perpetuate its position of power” (Akers & Sellers, 2009, p. 237).

Marxist criminologists consider crime to be prevalent throughout the capitalist society holding no appropriate or practical solution to the occurrence of crime (Akers & Sellers, 2009). The futility of social action and reform is evident due to the fact that they fail to address the principle fundamental within the capitalist society. Racially motivated crime is also known as bias motivation and this type of offense is personal in nature, pertaining to one’s race, ethnicity or nationality, religion, disability, or sexual orientation.

In relation to crime prevention programs, a hate crime prevention program may be utilized and implemented in the community based upon critical theory. A prevention program can be constructed to examine racial conflict that can be correlated to the split labor market theory in which the industrialization does not weaken structures of discrimination that already exist. Although the theoretical concept of economic resource is what Marxist theorists exclusively correlate to the conflict theory, race and ethnicity can be conceptually correlated to this theory as well due to the dominant group aiming to maintain their authority and value within society and the subordinate group striving for existence and opportunity (Niemonen, 2002).

References:

Agra, M.X. & Adan, C. (n.d.) Feminist epistemology without knowing subject? Departmento de Loxica e Filosofia Moral, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Retrieved on February 18, 2009, from http://www.women.it/quarta/workshops/re-figuring3/carmeadan.htm.

Akers, R.L. & Sellers, C.S. (2009). Criminological theories: Introduction, evaluation, and application. (5th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Buren, R.M. (1975, July). Toward a critical theory of criminal justice. Crime & Delinquency, 21, 223-232. Retrieved on February 16, 2009, from Sage Publications.

Hopkins, C.Q. & Koss, M.P. (2005). Incorporating feminist theory and insights into a restorative justice response to sex offenders. Violence Against Women, 11(5), 693-723. Retrieved on February 18, 2009, from http://restoreprogram.publichealth.arizona.edu/research/Hopkins%202005%20Incorporating%20Feminist%20Theory.pdf.

Kidd, S.A. & Kral, M.J. (2005). Practicing participatory action research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 187-195.

Liska, A. E. & Messner, S. F. (1999). Perspectives on crime and deviance (3rd ed.). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Niemonen, J. (2002). Race, class, and the state in contemporary sociology. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. Retrieved on February 18, 2009, from http://books.google.com/books?id=-cR2avvZQHgC&printsec=copyright&dq=race+and+the+conflict+theory.

Pressley, L. (2005). Whose knowledge is it anyway? Feminist epistemology and science. Department of Library and Information Studies School of Education, University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Retrieved on February 18, 2009, from http://www.laurenpressley.com/papers/feminist_epistemology.pdf.

Scott, J. (1978, March). Critical social theory: an introduction and critique. British Journal of Sociology, 29(1), 1-21. Retrieved February 18, 2009, from SocINDEX with Full Text database.

Straus, R.A. (2002). Using Sociology: An Introduction from the Applied and Clinical

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